Evolution of the English Language I. LEXICON — The vocabulary of English is immense and【T1】_____【T1】______ — The sequence of ado

Evolution of the English Language
Good morning, everyone. Today, we are going to talk about the evolution of the English language. As we all know, there are four major parts to every language system: lexicon, grammar, semantics, and phonology. When linguists study a language they are most concerned with these four systems. And today we shall examine the English language in these four aspects.
First of all, a language’s lexicon is its vocabulary. This is the system that dictionaries are most concerned with.[1]The lexicon of the English language is immense and constantly growing. To better understand this, it is helpful to consider the history of the English language. English began as a Germanic dialect spoken by the Anglo-Saxons. During the Roman Empire, many Latin words were adopted into the English language through Anglo-Saxon dealings with Romans. In CE 877, England was divided in half after the Viking invasions of the Norsemen. Because of this, many Norse words were implemented into the English language.[2]The procurement of many French words occurred in a similar manner after the Norman Conquest. The English Renaissance of the 16th and 17th centuries sparked new ideas which created a need for new words; many words were borrowed from Greek and Latin at that time. New ideas have most often created the need for new words.[3]The Anglo-Saxons of the 5th century were new to the concept of merchant-trading, so they borrowed Latin words for the things and concepts that were new to them. The same is true about religion and government. When the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity, many Latin words were adopted. After the Norman Conquest, a change in the type of government required the implementation of many French words. Today, words like computer, internet, and search engine are common, but fifty years ago they were unheard-of concepts.[4]New ideas, advances in technology in this example, continue to require additions to the English vocabulary. Dictionaries must be frequently updated in order to remain reliable sources of English’s lexicon.
The second system, grammar, also evolved throughout history. A change in grammar and sound structure occurred with the introduction of Norse.[5]The English case system was simplified in its dealings with the French after the Norman Conquest. In his essay, "Good English and Bad," Bill Bryson states: "One of the undoubted virtues of English is that it is a fluid language in which meanings change and shift in response to the pressures of common usage...".[6]Grammar, like lexicon, has evolved when necessary.
though it has done so at a much slower pace. English grammar was invented in the 17th century and involved placing the rules of Latin onto the English language. Since then, many committees have been established in an effort to regulate English grammar and usage but were consistently unsuccessful. The notion that English should have universal rules of grammar led to the idea of Standard English. Standard English is the dialect of the English language that is spoken by "educated people" and based entirely on grammar. It is the form of English that is taught to foreign language students.[7]Although it would seem that such rules of grammar would remain consistent, one cannot depend on an outdated grammar book to be a reliable source. In elementary school grammar courses, I was taught that it was grammatically incorrect to end a sentence with a preposition or begin one with a coordinating conjunction, and it was unnecessary to use a comma between the second to last item in a series and the coordinating conjunction that follows it.[8]/[9]Those rules have all changed. Standard English now allows sentences to end in a preposition or begin with a coordinating conjunction, and the extra comma is necessary.
Thirdly, about semantics. To study semantics is to study the meaning of words. Many dictionaries today not only give the current meaning of the word but also include a brief abstract of the word’s etymology.[10]To understand how semantics evolves, it is helpful to look at the etymology of words in the English language.[11]In Middle English, "sinister" meant "on the left"; today it means "evil". In Old English, the word "sly" meant "to strike or slay"; today it means something "clever, mischievous, or sneaky".[12]More recently, "hot" can now be used to describe not only temperature but also a level of attractiveness; "cool" also refers to temperature or a level of popularity, "hip" can mean in style or refer to a body part. Around 1932, "hip" was commonly used as a verb transient that meant "to make aware".
[13]The last system is phonology. To best describe the evolution of phonology, it is useful to consider Ebonics, or black English. Some of the characteristics of Ebonics are the elimination of the sound "1" makes in the middle of a word and the substitution of a "w" sound when a word ends in "1".[14]Black English words often drop the consonants at the end of words, especially if the word ends in two consonants. The reason for these differences in the phonology of Standard English and that of Black English is due to ancestry.[15]African-Americans, whose native language was African, applied many of their rules of phonics to English words. Likewise, many words in Japanese language are simply English words with vowels between each of the consonants. They’ve taken our word for something that is a new idea to them and applied their rules of phonics to the word.
OK. Let me recap what we have talked about today. The four major parts to every language system are lexicon, grammar, semantics, and phonology, and we’ve seen how they have evolved in the English language based upon the needs of those who use it. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that language is shaped by change. To examine how language shapes change, it is important to consider how language is used between those who use it.