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  3. SOCIALITY IN ANIMALS (1) Social insects represent the high point of invertebrate evolution. Some species live in communities

SOCIALITY IN ANIMALS (1) Social insects represent the high point of invertebrate evolution. Some species live in communities

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问题                                             SOCIALITY IN ANIMALS
    (1) Social insects represent the high point of invertebrate evolution. Some species live in communities of millions, coordinating their building and foraging, their reproduction, and their offspring care. Yet sociality is found in only a few species of insects, and is rare among vertebrates as well: wildebeest (large antelope) and lions are the exception rather than the rule. Nearly all fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals are solitary, except when courting and mating. Birds and mammals usually rear their young, but year-round family groups are almost unknown, though they are intensely studied where they do exist. The same is true for insects.
    (2) We know, or think we know, that social groups are good. [A] Wolves are better predators when they hunt in packs, and pigeons escape from falcons far more often when feeding in flocks. [B] Group building projects—the dams beavers build to block a body of water provide them with relative safety from predators and the lodges they build for shelter, for instance—can provide a high level of protection and comfort. [C] Why, then, are social species so very rare? [D] In fact, living socially presents inevitable problems that transcend habitat needs so that only when these costs are offset by corresponding benefits is group living a plus.
    (3) The most obvious cost is competition. All the members of a species share the same habitat; when they live together, they are trying to eat the same food and occupy the same nesting sites. In general, there is far less competition away from a group, and selection should favor any individual who (all things being equal) sets off on its own, leaving the members of its group behind to compete among themselves for limited resources. Another difficulty is that concentrations of individuals facilitate disease and parasite transmission. On the whole, social animals carry more parasites and species-specific diseases than do solitary animals. Parasites and diseases diminish the strength and limit the growth of animals, and among highly social creatures, epidemics can devastate whole populations. Distemper (a viral disease) has been known to wipe out entire colonies of seals, for instance. So the penalty of social life is potentially huge.
    (4) But in some instances, the payoffs can be even greater. Two have already been mentioned: cooperative hunting and defensive groups. Social hunting is likely to evolve where prey is too large to be taken by individuals operating alone. To capture wildebeest some members of a group of lions follow their prey and herd them toward others lying in ambush. In other species, individuals forage or hunt simultaneously and share the food. Vampire bats that have had a bad day, for instance, are fed by more successful members of the community, but they are expected to return the favor in the future. Cooperation can even involve sharing information about the location of food. Some colonial birds, such as bank swallows, use the departure direction of a successful forager (food hunter) to locate concentrations of prey. Information transfer can be unintentional though some species make use of special assembly calls or behavior.
    (5) Cooperation in group defense, such as we see in circles of musk oxen or elephants, is quite rare among vertebrates but is prevalent among the social insects. The strategy of employing many eyes to watch for danger, on the other hand, is widespread in birds and mammals. A herd of gazelles (small antelope) is far more likely to spot a lurking lion or a concealed cheetah than is a lone individual, and at a greater distance. In fact, a group enters into a kind of time-sharing arrangement in which individual antelopes alternate biting off a mouthful of grass with a period of erect and watchful chewing. A larger group can afford more bites per individual per minute, there being more eyes to scan for danger. For a small antelope living in a forest where visibility is limited, however, remaining hidden is probably a better bet than assembling into noisy herds.
    (6) Among the millions of species of insects, only a few thousand are social. Those rarities are generally confined to termites and Hymenoptera. All termites are social: their diet (cellulose) requires that each generation feeds a special kind of bacteria or fungi to the next generation to aid in its digestion. Of the numerous hymenopterans, some are social—including all ants and a few bees and wasps—but many are solitary.
Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 4 about how bank swallows find food cooperatively?
选项 A、They give special favors to members of their community that have been successful foragers.
B、They use special calls and signals to indicate to other swallows where food is located.
C、They observe the direction a successful forager took to locate prey.
D、They locate concentrations of prey by setting off in different directions.
答案C
解析 本题属于推断题，要求根据第4段判断哪一项是崖沙燕防作找食物的方式。第4段倒数第2句提到，崖沙燕利用觅食成功的其他崖沙燕(猎食者)离开的方向来定位猎物，故C项“崖沙燕观察成功觅食的伙伴的方向，以定位猎物”是对原文的同义表达。A项“特别照顾群体里成功觅食的伙伴”在文中无依据。B项“崖沙燕利用特殊的口令和信号向其他崖沙燕暗示食物所在地”利用第4段最后一句设置干扰，但该句说的一些物种(some species)没有明确指出是崖沙燕。故该项缺乏原文依据。D项“崖沙燕通过从不同的方向起飞来定位猎物”利用departure direction和concentrations of prey设置干扰，但原文说的是通过其他成功觅食的崖沙燕离开的方向来定位猎物，故D项的说法与原文不符。
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